rusjelRussian Journal of Economics and LawRussian Journal of Economics and Law2782-2923"TCE "Taglimat"" Ltd.10.21202/1993-047X.13.2019.1.1092-1109YZURZRrusjel-15Research ArticleПЕРЕВОДНЫЕ СТАТЬИTRANSLATED ARTICLESГосударственный контроль, базы данных и наблюдениеPolicing, databases, and surveillanceСлобогинК.SloboginC.christopher.slobogin@vanderbilt.eduУниверситет ВандербильтаСоединённые Штаты АмерикиVanderbilt University Law SchoolUnited States20193003201913110921109Copyright © Слобогин К., 20192019Слобогин К.Slobogin C.Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://www.rusjel.ru/jour/article/view/15

Цель: разработка правовых рекомендаций по доступу правоохранительных органов к базам данным.Методы: диалектический подход к познанию социальных явлений, позволяющий проанализировать их в историческом развитии и функционировании в контексте совокупности объективных и субъективных факторов, который определил выбор следующих методов исследования: формально-юридический, сравнительно-правовой и др. Результаты: базы данных содержат большие объемы персональной информации, которая может быть полезной в работе правоохранительных органов. Доступ государственных организаций к таким базам данных может осуществляться по пяти основаниям: «по подозреваемому», «по профилю», «по событию», «по программе» и «по инициативе». Согласно рекомендации автора работы, в дополнение к ограничениям в силу Четвертой поправки (которые в настоящее время минимальны), каждый вид доступа должен иметь собственный режим регулирования. Так, доступ«по подозреваемому» должен иметь обоснование, пропорциональное степени глубины доступа. При доступе «по профилю» также должен соблюдаться принцип пропорциональности в отношении степени прозрачности, контроля и общих ограничений. Доступ «по событию» должен ограничиваться временем и местом события. Доступ «по программе» должен регулироваться соответствующими актами, не противоречащими действующему законодательству. Информация, собираемая по инициативе различных организаций, не должна быть доступна, если только она не является необходимой для предотвращения серьезного правонарушения.Научная новизна: в работе предложены следующие рекомендации по доступу правоохранительных органов к базам данных: а) если отделение полиции ищет непубличную информацию о конкретном человеке, оно должно предъявить подозрения в совершении им преступного деяния, пропорциональные глубине вторжения в личные данные; б) если правоохранительные органы получают доступ к информации с целью создания профиля для поиска подозреваемых, они должны убедиться, что профиль имеет необходимый коэффициент попадания на основе принципа пропорциональности, что он не содержит противоправной дискриминации и использует понятный алгоритм; в) если отделение полиции отталкивается в своем расследовании не от подозреваемого или профиля, а от самого преступления, то такое преступление должно относиться к категории тяжких преступлений, а круг лиц, по которым запрашивается информация, должен быть минимальным и соответствовать времени и месту преступления; г) сбор данных, необходимых для целей правоохранительной деятельности, должен осуществляться негосударственными организациями в пределах, соответствующих основным целям сбора информации; независимо от места сбора и хранения информации, эти процессы должны регулироваться особым законодательством и административными нормами, выработанными открыто и демократическим путем. Практическая значимость: основные положения и выводы статьи могут быть использованы в научной и педагогической деятельности при рассмотрении вопросов, связанных с теоретическими и прикладными проблемами, связанными с выявлением, пресечением и предупреждением правонарушений.

Objective: to elaborate legal recommendations concerning the access of law enforcement bodies to data bases.Methods: dialectical approach to cognition of social phenomena, allowing to analyze them in historical development and functioning in the context of the totality of objective and subjective factors, predetermined the following research methods: formal-logical, comparative-legal, and others.Results: Databases are full of personal information that law enforcement might find useful. Government access to these databases can be divided into five categories: suspect-driven; profile-driven; event-driven; program-driven and volunteer-driven. This chapter recommends that, in addition to any restrictions imposed by the Fourth Amendment (which currently are minimal), each type of access should be subject to its own regulatory regime. Suspect-driven access should depend on justification proportionate to the intrusion. Profile-driven access should likewise abide by a proportionality principle but should also be subject to transparency, vetting, and universality restrictions. Event-driven access should be cabined by the time and place of the event. Program-driven access should be authorized by legislation and by regulations publicly arrived-at and evenly applied. Information maintained by institutional fiduciaries should not be volunteered unless necessary to forestall an ongoing or imminent serious wrong.Scientific novelty: the article suggests the following recommendations on the access of law enforcement bodies to data bases: a) if a policing agency seeks non-public records about an identified person, it should have to demonstrate suspicion of wrongdoing proportionate to the intrusion involved; b) if a law enforcement agency is accessing data for the purpose of executing a profile to identify suspects, it should ensure the profile produces the requisite proportionality - derived hit rate, avoids illegitimate discrimination, and uses an understandable algorithm; c) if policing agencies are relying on a crime rather than a suspect or a profile as the starting point of the investigation, the crime should be serious and the number of people investigated kept to the minimum dictated by the time and place of the crime; d) collections of data needed by law enforcement should be maintained outside of government to the extent consistent with governing needs, but wherever maintained they should be authorized by specific legislation and administrative rules transparently and democratically arrived at. Practical significance: the main provisions and conclusions of the article can be used in scientific and educational activities while consideration the issues related to identification, suppression and prevention of crimes.

государственный контрольбазы данныхнаблюдениеЧетвертая поправкадоктрина третьей стороныреформа уголовной политикиReferencesU.S.C. §§ 2511 & 2518.U.S.C. §§ 2511 & 2518.U.S.C. § 2703(a), (b)(1)(B).U.S.C. § 2703(a), (b)(1)(B).U.S.C. § 2711(2).U.S.C. § 2711(2).Slobogin C. Privacy at risk: The new government surveillance and the Fourth Amendment, University of Chicago, IL, Chicago Press, 2007.Slobogin C. Privacy at risk: The new government surveillance and the Fourth Amendment, University of Chicago, IL, Chicago Press, 2007.Murphy E. The politics of privacy in the criminal justice system: Information disclosure, the Fourth Amendment, and statutory law enforcement exemptions, Michigan Law Review, 2013, Vol. 111, No. 4, pp. 485-546.Murphy E. The politics of privacy in the criminal justice system: Information disclosure, the Fourth Amendment, and statutory law enforcement exemptions, Michigan Law Review, 2013, Vol. 111, No. 4, pp. 485-546.Florida v. Jardines, 569 U.S. 1 (2013).Florida v. Jardines, 569 U.S. 1 (2013).Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735 (1979).Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735 (1979).United States v. Morton Salt Co., 338 U.S. 632 (1950).United States v. Morton Salt Co., 338 U.S. 632 (1950).United States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435 (1976).United States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435 (1976).United States v. Warshak, 631 F.3d 266 (6th Cir. 2010).United States v. Warshak, 631 F.3d 266 (6th Cir. 2010).Maryland v. King, 133 S. Ct. 1958 (2013).Maryland v. King, 133 S. Ct. 1958 (2013).United States v. Hubbell, 530 U.S. 27 (2000).United States v. Hubbell, 530 U.S. 27 (2000).Wilson v. Collins, 517 F.3d 421 (6th Cir. 2008).Wilson v. Collins, 517 F.3d 421 (6th Cir. 2008).Garner v. United States, 424 U.S. 648 (1976).Garner v. United States, 424 U.S. 648 (1976).Baltimore Dep’t of Soc. Serv. v. Bouknight, 493 U.S. 549 (1990).Baltimore Dep’t of Soc. Serv. v. Bouknight, 493 U.S. 549 (1990).Murphy E. DNA in the criminal justice system: A congressional research service report, UCLA Law Review Discourse, 2016, Vol. 64, pp. 340-371.Murphy E. DNA in the criminal justice system: A congressional research service report, UCLA Law Review Discourse, 2016, Vol. 64, pp. 340-371.United States v. Knotts, 460 U.S. 276 (1983).United States v. Knotts, 460 U.S. 276 (1983).Blumenthal J. E., Adya M., Mogle J. The multiple dimensions of privacy: Testing “lay” expectations of privacy, Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, 2009, Vol. 11, pp. 331-373.Blumenthal J. E., Adya M., Mogle J. The multiple dimensions of privacy: Testing “lay” expectations of privacy, Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, 2009, Vol. 11, pp. 331-373.Scott-Hayward C. S., Fradella H. F., Fischer R. G. Does privacy require secrecy: Societal expectations of privacy in the digital age, American Journal of Criminal Law, 2015, Vol. 43, pp. 19-60.Scott-Hayward C. S., Fradella H. F., Fischer R. G. Does privacy require secrecy: Societal expectations of privacy in the digital age, American Journal of Criminal Law, 2015, Vol. 43, pp. 19-60.Lametti D. The Cloud: Boundless digital potential or enclosure 3.0?, Virginia Journal of Law and Technology, 2012, Vol. 17, pp. 190-243.Lametti D. The Cloud: Boundless digital potential or enclosure 3.0?, Virginia Journal of Law and Technology, 2012, Vol. 17, pp. 190-243.Solove D. J. Privacy and power: Computer databases and metaphors for information privacy, Stanford Law Review*, 2001, Vol. 53, pp. 1393-1462.Solove D. J. Privacy and power: Computer databases and metaphors for information privacy, Stanford Law Review*, 2001, Vol. 53, pp. 1393-1462.Riley v. California, 134 S. Ct. 2473 (2014).Riley v. California, 134 S. Ct. 2473 (2014).United States v. Jones, 565 U.S. 400 (2012).United States v. Jones, 565 U.S. 400 (2012).LaFave W. R., Israel J. H., King N. J., Kerr O. S. Criminal procedure, 3rd ed., Eagan, MN, Thomson/West Group, 2007.LaFave W. R., Israel J. H., King N. J., Kerr O. S. Criminal procedure, 3rd ed., Eagan, MN, Thomson/West Group, 2007.Florida v. J. L., 529 U.S. 266 (2000).Florida v. J. L., 529 U.S. 266 (2000).Illinois v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213 (1983).Illinois v. Gates, 462 U.S. 213 (1983).Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968).Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968).Kyllo v. United States, 533 U.S. 27 (2001).Kyllo v. United States, 533 U.S. 27 (2001).McCarthy H. J. Decoding the decryption debate: Why legislating to restrict strong encryption will not resolve the “going dark” problem, Journal of Internet Law, 2016, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 1/18-39.McCarthy H. J. Decoding the decryption debate: Why legislating to restrict strong encryption will not resolve the “going dark” problem, Journal of Internet Law, 2016, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 1/18-39.Slobogin C. Government data mining and the Fourth Amendment, University of Chicago Law Review, 2008, Vol. 75, No. 1, pp. 317-341.Slobogin C. Government data mining and the Fourth Amendment, University of Chicago Law Review, 2008, Vol. 75, No. 1, pp. 317-341.ABA Standards for criminal justice: Law enforcement access to third part records, American Bar Association, 2013, available at: https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publications/criminal_justice_standards/third_party_access. authcheckdam.pdfABA Standards for criminal justice: Law enforcement access to third part records, American Bar Association, 2013, available at: https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publications/criminal_justice_standards/third_party_access. authcheckdam.pdfBellovin S. M., Blaze M., Landau S., Pell S. K. It’s too complicated: How the internet upends Katz, Smith, and electronic surveillance law, Harvard Journal of Law and Technology, 2016, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 1-101.Bellovin S. M., Blaze M., Landau S., Pell S. K. It’s too complicated: How the internet upends Katz, Smith, and electronic surveillance law, Harvard Journal of Law and Technology, 2016, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 1-101.County of Riverside v. McLaughlin U. S.County of Riverside v. McLaughlin U. S.United States v. Sharpe, 470 U.S. 675 (1985).United States v. Sharpe, 470 U.S. 675 (1985).Kerr O. S. The mosaic theory of the Fourth Amendment, Michigan Law Review, 2011, Vol. 111, No. 3, pp. 311-354.Kerr O. S. The mosaic theory of the Fourth Amendment, Michigan Law Review, 2011, Vol. 111, No. 3, pp. 311-354.Slobogin C. Making the most of United States v. Jones in a surveillance society: A statutory implementation of mosaic theory, Duke Journal of Constitutional Law and Public Policy, 2012, No. 8, pp. 1-37.Slobogin C. Making the most of United States v. Jones in a surveillance society: A statutory implementation of mosaic theory, Duke Journal of Constitutional Law and Public Policy, 2012, No. 8, pp. 1-37.Yamamoto E. K. White (house) lies: Why the public must compel the courts to hold the President accountable for national security abuses, Law and Contemporary Problems, 2005, Vol. 68, No. 2, pp. 285-339.Yamamoto E. K. White (house) lies: Why the public must compel the courts to hold the President accountable for national security abuses, Law and Contemporary Problems, 2005, Vol. 68, No. 2, pp. 285-339.Lowenkamp C. T., Whetzel J. The development of an actuarial risk assessment instrument for U.S. pretrial services, Federal Probation, 2009, Vol. 73, No. 3, pp. 33-36.Lowenkamp C. T., Whetzel J. The development of an actuarial risk assessment instrument for U.S. pretrial services, Federal Probation, 2009, Vol. 73, No. 3, pp. 33-36.Fagan J. Race and the new policing, Reforming criminal justice: A report of the Academy for Justice on bridging the gap between scholarship and reform, ed. Luna E., Phoenix, AZ, Academy for Justice, 2017, pp. 83-116.Fagan J. Race and the new policing, Reforming criminal justice: A report of the Academy for Justice on bridging the gap between scholarship and reform, ed. Luna E., Phoenix, AZ, Academy for Justice, 2017, pp. 83-116.Ferguson A. G. Big data and predictive reasonable suspicion, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 2015, Vol. 163, No. 2, pp. 327-410.Ferguson A. G. Big data and predictive reasonable suspicion, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 2015, Vol. 163, No. 2, pp. 327-410.Rich M. L. Machine learning, automated algorithms, and the Fourth Amendment, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 2016, Vol. 164, pp. 871-929.Rich M. L. Machine learning, automated algorithms, and the Fourth Amendment, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 2016, Vol. 164, pp. 871-929.Barocas S., Selbst A. D. Big data’s disparate impact, California Law Review, 2016, Vol. 104, pp. 671-732.Barocas S., Selbst A. D. Big data’s disparate impact, California Law Review, 2016, Vol. 104, pp. 671-732.Carbado D. W. Race and the Fourth Amendment, Reforming criminal justice: A report of the Academy for Justice on bridging the gap between scholarship and reform, ed. Luna E., Phoenix, AZ, Academy for Justice, 2017, pp. 153-184.Carbado D. W. Race and the Fourth Amendment, Reforming criminal justice: A report of the Academy for Justice on bridging the gap between scholarship and reform, ed. Luna E., Phoenix, AZ, Academy for Justice, 2017, pp. 153-184.Harris D. A. Racial profiling, Reforming criminal justice: A report of the Academy for Justice on bridging the gap between scholarship and reform, ed. Luna E., Phoenix, AZ, Academy for Justice, 2017, pp. 117-152.Harris D. A. Racial profiling, Reforming criminal justice: A report of the Academy for Justice on bridging the gap between scholarship and reform, ed. Luna E., Phoenix, AZ, Academy for Justice, 2017, pp. 117-152.Selbst A. D., Barocas S. Regulating inscrutable systems (in press), available at: http://www.werobot2017.com/wpcontent/ uploads/2017/03/Selbst-and-Barocas-Regulating-Inscrutable-Systems-1.pdfSelbst A. D., Barocas S. Regulating inscrutable systems (in press), available at: http://www.werobot2017.com/wpcontent/ uploads/2017/03/Selbst-and-Barocas-Regulating-Inscrutable-Systems-1.pdfKroll J. A., Huey J., Barocas S., Felten E. W., Reidenberg J. R., Robinson D. G., Yu H. Accountable algorithms, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 2017, Vol. 165, pp. 633-705.Kroll J. A., Huey J., Barocas S., Felten E. W., Reidenberg J. R., Robinson D. G., Yu H. Accountable algorithms, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 2017, Vol. 165, pp. 633-705.Feldman M., Friedler S., Moeller J., Scheidegger C., Venkatasubramanian S. Certifying and removing disparate impact, Proceedings of the 21st ACM SIGKDD International Conference of Knowledge Discover and Data Mining, Sydney, NSW, Australia, The Association for Computing Machinery, 2015, pp. 259-268.Feldman M., Friedler S., Moeller J., Scheidegger C., Venkatasubramanian S. Certifying and removing disparate impact, Proceedings of the 21st ACM SIGKDD International Conference of Knowledge Discover and Data Mining, Sydney, NSW, Australia, The Association for Computing Machinery, 2015, pp. 259-268.Goel S., Perelman. M., Shroff R., Sklansky D. A. Combatting police discrimination in the age of big data, New Criminal Law Review, 2017, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 181-232.Goel S., Perelman. M., Shroff R., Sklansky D. A. Combatting police discrimination in the age of big data, New Criminal Law Review, 2017, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 181-232.Jones-Brown D., Stoudt B. G., Johnston B., Moran K. Stop, question, & frisk policing practices in New York City: A primer (revised ed.), 2013, available at: http://www.atlanticphilanthropies.org/app/uploads/2015/09/SQF_Primer_July_013.pdfJones-Brown D., Stoudt B. G., Johnston B., Moran K. Stop, question, & frisk policing practices in New York City: A primer (revised ed.), 2013, available at: http://www.atlanticphilanthropies.org/app/uploads/2015/09/SQF_Primer_July_013.pdfWhite M. D., Fradella H. F. Stop and frisk: The use and abuse of a controversial policing tactic, New York, NY, New York University Press, 2016.White M. D., Fradella H. F. Stop and frisk: The use and abuse of a controversial policing tactic, New York, NY, New York University Press, 2016.Reel M. Secret cameras recording Baltimore’s every move from above, Bloomberg Businessweek, 2016, available at: https:// www.bloomberg.com/features/2016-baltimore-secret-surveillance/Reel M. Secret cameras recording Baltimore’s every move from above, Bloomberg Businessweek, 2016, available at: https:// www.bloomberg.com/features/2016-baltimore-secret-surveillance/Bambauer J. Hassle, Michigan Law Review, 2015, Vol. 113, No. 4, pp. 461-511.Bambauer J. Hassle, Michigan Law Review, 2015, Vol. 113, No. 4, pp. 461-511.Illinois v. Lidster, 540 U.S. 419 (2004).Illinois v. Lidster, 540 U.S. 419 (2004).Cong. Rec. S1379-02, S1416 (Jan 23, 2003).Cong. Rec. S1379-02, S1416 (Jan 23, 2003).Greenwald G. ZKeyscore: NSA tool collects “nearly everything a user does on the internet”, The Guardian, 2013, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/31/nsa-top-secret-program-online-dataGreenwald G. ZKeyscore: NSA tool collects “nearly everything a user does on the internet”, The Guardian, 2013, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/31/nsa-top-secret-program-online-dataPerlroth N., Gelles D. Russian hackers amass over a billion internet passwords, New York Times, 2014, available at: https:// www.nytimes.com/2014/08/06/technology/russian-gang-said-to-amass-more-than-abillion-stolen-internet-credentials.htmlPerlroth N., Gelles D. Russian hackers amass over a billion internet passwords, New York Times, 2014, available at: https:// www.nytimes.com/2014/08/06/technology/russian-gang-said-to-amass-more-than-abillion-stolen-internet-credentials.htmlSloan R. H., Warner R. The self, the Stasi, and the NSA: Privacy, knowledge, and complicity in the surveillance state, Minnesota Journal of Law, Science, and Technology, 2016, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 347-408.Sloan R. H., Warner R. The self, the Stasi, and the NSA: Privacy, knowledge, and complicity in the surveillance state, Minnesota Journal of Law, Science, and Technology, 2016, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 347-408.Solove D. J. Digital dossiers and the dissipation of Fourth Amendment privacy, Southern California Law Review, 2004, Vol. 75, pp. 1083-1167.Solove D. J. Digital dossiers and the dissipation of Fourth Amendment privacy, Southern California Law Review, 2004, Vol. 75, pp. 1083-1167.USA Freedom Act of 2015. (2015). Pub. L. No. 114-23, § 101, 129 Stat. 268, 269-71 [amending 50 U.S.C. §§ 1861(b) (2) & (c)(2)].USA Freedom Act of 2015. (2015). Pub. L. No. 114-23, § 101, 129 Stat. 268, 269-71 [amending 50 U.S.C. §§ 1861(b) (2) & (c)(2)].Whittaker Z. Freedom Act will kill only one of NSA’s programs (and not even one of its worst), Zero Day, 2014, May 4, available at: http://www.zdnet.com/article/freedom-actmetadata-phone-records-prism/Whittaker Z. Freedom Act will kill only one of NSA’s programs (and not even one of its worst), Zero Day, 2014, May 4, available at: http://www.zdnet.com/article/freedom-actmetadata-phone-records-prism/Long C. NYPD, Microsoft create crime-fighting tech system, NBC New York, 2013, February 20, available at: http://www. nbcnewyork.com/news/local/NYPDMicrosoft-Crime-Fighting-Tech-System-192157481.htmlLong C. NYPD, Microsoft create crime-fighting tech system, NBC New York, 2013, February 20, available at: http://www. nbcnewyork.com/news/local/NYPDMicrosoft-Crime-Fighting-Tech-System-192157481.htmlBlitz M. J., Grimsley J., Henderson S. E., Thai J. Regulating drones under the First and Fourth Amendments, William and Mary Law Review, 2015, Vol. 57, No. 1, pp. 49-142.Blitz M. J., Grimsley J., Henderson S. E., Thai J. Regulating drones under the First and Fourth Amendments, William and Mary Law Review, 2015, Vol. 57, No. 1, pp. 49-142.Sengupta S. Privacy fears grow as cities increase surveillance, New York Times, 2013, October 13, available at: http://www. nytimes.com/2013/10/14/technology/privacy-fears-as-surveillance-grows-incities.html?mcubz=0Sengupta S. Privacy fears grow as cities increase surveillance, New York Times, 2013, October 13, available at: http://www. nytimes.com/2013/10/14/technology/privacy-fears-as-surveillance-grows-incities.html?mcubz=0The Constitution Project. Recommendations for fusion centers: Preserving privacy and civil liberties while protecting against crime and terrorism, 2012, available at: https://constitutionproject.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/10/fusioncenterreport.pdfThe Constitution Project. Recommendations for fusion centers: Preserving privacy and civil liberties while protecting against crime and terrorism, 2012, available at: https://constitutionproject.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/10/fusioncenterreport.pdfSlobogin C. Panvasive surveillance, political process theory, and the nondelegation doctrine, The Georgetown Law Journal, 2014, Vol. 102, pp. 1721-1776.Slobogin C. Panvasive surveillance, political process theory, and the nondelegation doctrine, The Georgetown Law Journal, 2014, Vol. 102, pp. 1721-1776.Smith M. L. Regulating law enforcement’s use of drones: The need for state legislation, Harvard Journal on Legislation, 2015, Vol. 52, pp. 423-454.Smith M. L. Regulating law enforcement’s use of drones: The need for state legislation, Harvard Journal on Legislation, 2015, Vol. 52, pp. 423-454.Garry P. M. Judicial review and the “hard look” doctrine, Nevada Law Journal, 2006, Vol. 7, pp. 151-170.Garry P. M. Judicial review and the “hard look” doctrine, Nevada Law Journal, 2006, Vol. 7, pp. 151-170.Ponomarenko M., Friedman B. Democratic accountability and policing, Reforming criminal justice: A report of the Academy for Justice on bridging the gap between scholarship and reform, ed. Luna E, Phoenix, AZ, Academy for Justice, 2017, pp. 5-26.Ponomarenko M., Friedman B. Democratic accountability and policing, Reforming criminal justice: A report of the Academy for Justice on bridging the gap between scholarship and reform, ed. Luna E, Phoenix, AZ, Academy for Justice, 2017, pp. 5-26.Slobogin C. Policing as administration, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 2016, Vol. 165, pp. 91-152.Slobogin C. Policing as administration, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 2016, Vol. 165, pp. 91-152.Friedman B., Stein C. B. Redefining what’s “reasonable”: The protections for policing, George Washington Law Review. 2016, Vol. 84, рp. 281-353.Friedman B., Stein C. B. Redefining what’s “reasonable”: The protections for policing, George Washington Law Review. 2016, Vol. 84, рp. 281-353.Roth A. Maryland v. King and the wonderful, horrible DNA revolution in law enforcement, Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 2013, Vol. 11, pp. 295-309.Roth A. Maryland v. King and the wonderful, horrible DNA revolution in law enforcement, Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 2013, Vol. 11, pp. 295-309.5 U.S.C. § 552(b)(7)(E).5 U.S.C. § 552(b)(7)(E).Hoffa v. United States, 385 U.S. 293 (1966).Hoffa v. United States, 385 U.S. 293 (1966).Lewis v. United States, 385 U.S. 206 (1966).Lewis v. United States, 385 U.S. 206 (1966).Miller v. United States, 425 U.S. 435 (1976).Miller v. United States, 425 U.S. 435 (1976).Citizens United v. Fed. Elec. Comm’n, 558 U.S. 310 (2010).Citizens United v. Fed. Elec. Comm’n, 558 U.S. 310 (2010).Hale v. Henkel, 210 U.S. 43 (1906).Hale v. Henkel, 210 U.S. 43 (1906).Brennan-Marquez K. Fourth Amendment fiduciaries, Fordham Law Review, 2015, Vol. 84, No. 2, pp. 611-659.Brennan-Marquez K. Fourth Amendment fiduciaries, Fordham Law Review, 2015, Vol. 84, No. 2, pp. 611-659.Ferguson v. City of Charleston, 532 U.S. 67 (2001).Ferguson v. City of Charleston, 532 U.S. 67 (2001).31 U.S.C. § 5313(a).31 U.S.C. § 5313(a).Hoofnagle C. J. Big brother’s little helpers: How ChoicePoint and other commercial data brokers collect and package your data for law enforcement, North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation, 2004, Vol. 29, pp. 595-637.Hoofnagle C. J. Big brother’s little helpers: How ChoicePoint and other commercial data brokers collect and package your data for law enforcement, North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation, 2004, Vol. 29, pp. 595-637.Cover A. Y. Corporate avatars and the erosion of the populist Fourth Amendment, Iowa Law Review, 2015, Vol. 100, pp. 1441-1502.Cover A. Y. Corporate avatars and the erosion of the populist Fourth Amendment, Iowa Law Review, 2015, Vol. 100, pp. 1441-1502.Florida Stat. Ann. § 394.4615(3)(a).Florida Stat. Ann. § 394.4615(3)(a).Model Rules of Professional Conduct, American Bar Association,1983, available at: https://www.americanbar.org/groups/ professional_responsibility/publications/model_rules_of_professional_conduct/rule_1_6_confidentiality_of_information.htmlModel Rules of Professional Conduct, American Bar Association,1983, available at: https://www.americanbar.org/groups/ professional_responsibility/publications/model_rules_of_professional_conduct/rule_1_6_confidentiality_of_information.html18 U.S.C. § 2702(c).18 U.S.C. § 2702(c).Total Information Awareness. (n.d.), Wikipedia, July 14, 2017, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Information_ AwarenessTotal Information Awareness. (n.d.), Wikipedia, July 14, 2017, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Information_ AwarenessSlobogin C. Policing, databases, and surveillance, Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society, 2017, Vol. 18, Is. 3, pp. 70-84.Slobogin C. Policing, databases, and surveillance, Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society, 2017, Vol. 18, Is. 3, pp. 70-84.* Принадлежит нежелательной организации в РФ / Belongs to an undesirable organization in the Russian Federation.* Принадлежит нежелательной организации в РФ / Belongs to an undesirable organization in the Russian Federation.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.