Архитектура цифровой валюты, системно поддерживающая приватность и кастодиальное хранение

Цель: представление нового подхода к совершению денежных транзакций с использованием цифровых валют.

Методы: абстрактно-логический, аналитический.

Результаты: в последние годы во многих развитых странах электронные розничные платежи все больше вытесняют оплату наличными деньгами. Особенно это заметно в секторе электронной коммерции и при выполнении оплаты картой в торговой точке. В результате общество утрачивает возможность использования оплаты розничных покупок, а розничные покупатели лишаются значимых прав, связанных с использованием ими наличных денег. Для решения этой проблемы мы предлагаем новый подход к использованию цифровых валют, который позволит людям совершать транзакции в электронной форме, а также приватно, без обращения к банкам, как в сфере электронной коммерции, так и в торговых точках, где требуется безналичная оплата.

В статье показаны преимущества наличных расчетов относительно безналичных платежей, а также определены возможности трансформации этих преимуществ в цифровые валюты центральных банков. Рассмотрены дискуссионные вопросы развития коммерческих банков в условиях распространения цифровых валют. Описана архитектура цифровых валют, в том числе технология распределенного реестра. Показано, что для более эффективной организации функционирования цифровой валюты необходимо заложить в ее архитектуру приватность операций розничных пользователей, а также определены необходимые для этого меры.

Научная новизна: предложенный в статье подход предлагается использовать для развития инфраструктуры цифровой валюты. Предполагается, что он управлялся бы частным образом, был обеспечен государством и поддерживал процесс регистрации каждой транзакции банком или оператором, опираясь на не связанные с депозитарием электронные кошельки на основе обеспечивающих анонимность технологий, например, слепых подписей или протоколов доказательств с нулевым разглашением (т. е. без раскрытия конфиденциальных сведений сторон сделки). Этот подход может также обеспечить более высокую эффективность и прозрачность взаиморасчетов, погашения задолженности и управления системными рисками. Мы утверждаем, что наша система может восстановить и сохранить важнейшие свойства наличности, включая приватность, подконтрольность владельцу, взаимозаменяемость и доступность, при этом поддерживая функцию частичного банковского резервирования и существующую двухуровневую банковскую систему.

Практическая значимость: предложенный подход может быть применен в практической организации системы денежных расчетов с использованием цифровых валют.

Впервые статья опубликована на английском языке в журнале Future Internet. По вопросам коммерческого использования обратитесь в редакцию журнала Future Internet.

Цитирование оригинала статьи на английском: Goodell G., Al-Nakib H. D., Tasca P. A Digital Currency Architecture for Privacy and Owner-Custodianship, Future Internet, 2021, 13, 130. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi13050130

URL публикации: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/13/5/130

1. Mancini-Griffoli, T., Peria, M., Agur, I., Ari, A., Kiff, J., Popescu, A., Rochon, C. (November 2018). Casting Light on Central Bank Digital Currency. IMF Staff Discusion, Note SDN/18/08. https://www.imf.org/~7media/Files/Publications/SDN/2018/DN1808.ashx (access date: 10.05.2020).

2. Auer, R., Cornelli, G., Frost, J. (3 April 2020). Covid-19, cash, and the future of payments. BIS Bulletin, 3. https://www.bis.org/publ/bisbull03.pdf (access date: 04.04.2020).

3. Goodell, G. (7 January 2020). Comment on FR Doc #2020-28437. Public Submission to the US Financial Crimes Enforcement Network. https://downloads.regulations.gov/FINCEN-2020-0020-4720/attachment_1.pdf (access date: 08.01.2021).

4. Access to Cash Review (UK) (March 2019). Final Report. https://www.accesstocash.org.uk/media/1087/final-report-final-web.pdf (access date: 07.01.2021).

5. Sadeghi, M. Fact Check: No US Law Requires Businesses to Take Cash, But Local Laws May Mandate It (16 September 2020). USA Today. https://eu.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2020/09/16/fact-check-cashless-businesses-banned-only-some-local-state-laws/3330804001/ (access date: 07.01.2021).

6. Tisher, D., Evans J., Cross K., Scott R., Oxley I. (2020). Where to Withdraw? Mapping Access to Cash across the UK, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK. http://www.bristol.ac.uk/media-library/sites/geography/pfrc/Where%20to%20withdraw%20-%20mapping%20access%20to%20cash%20across%20the%20UK.pdf (access date: 07.01.2021).

7. Armer, P. (1968). Privacy Aspects of the Cashless and Checkless Society. In Testimony before the US Senate Subcommittee on Administrative Practice and Procedure, RAND Corporation: Santa Monica, CA, USA. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2013/P3822.pdf (access date: 07.01.2021).

8. Armer, P. (1975). Computer Technology and Surveillance. Comput. People, 24, 8–11, https://archive.org/stream/bitsavers_computersA_3986915/197509#page/n7/mode/2up (access date: 07.01.2021).

9. Nissenbaum, H. (May 2017). Deregulating Collection: Must Privacy Give Way to Use Regulation?. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3092282 (access date: 29.09.2020).

10. Rychwalska, A., Goodell, G., Roszczynska-Kurasinska, M. (2021). Data management for platform-mediated public services: Challenges and best practices. Surveill. Soc., 19, 22–36. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v19i1.13986

11. Goodell, G. (2020). Privacy by Design in Value-Exchange Systems. Discussion Paper. https://arxiv.org/abs/2006.05892 (access date: 10.06.2020).

12. Goodell, G., Aste, T. (2019). Can Cryptocurrencies Preserve Privacy and Comply with Regulations?. Front. Blockchain. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbloc.2019.00004

13. Mersch, Y. (11 May 2020). Speech at the Consensus 2020 Virtual Conference. https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/key/date/2020/html/ecb.sp200511~01209cb324.en.html (access date: 11.05.2020).

14. Zhang, T. (2020). Keynote Address on Central Bank Digital Currency. London School of Economics. London. UK. https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2020/03/19/sp031920-deputy-managing-director-tao-zhangs-keynote-address-on-central-bank-digital-currency (access date: 22.04.2020).

15. Monetary Authority of Singapore, Bank of Canada, and Bank of England. Cross-Border Interbank Payments and Settlements: Emerging Opportunities for Digital Transformation (November 2018). https://www.mas.gov.sg/-/media/MAS/ProjectUbin/Cross-Border-Interbank-Payments-and-Settlements.pdf (access date: 30.04.2020).

16. Bank of England. Central Bank Digital Currency: Opportunities, Challenges and Design (12 March 2020). Discussion Paper. https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/paper/2020/central-bank-digital-currency-opportunities-challenges-and-design-discussion-paper (access date: 16.03.2020).

17. Nakamoto, S. (3 January 2009). Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System. https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf (access date: 04.10.2018).

18. Buterin, V. (2013). Ethereum Whitepaper. https://ethereum.org/en/whitepaper/ (access date: 08.01.2021).

19. Keister, T., Sanches, D. (2019). Should Central Banks Issue Digital Currency?. Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia Working Papers WP, 19–26. Philadelphia, PA, USA, pp. 26–28. https://ideas.repec.org/p/fip/fedpwp/19-26.html (access date: 08.01.2021).

20. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2020). Blockchain and Distributed Ledger Technologies – Vocabulary, 1st ed.; ISO/22739:2020; ISO: Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:22739:ed-1:v1:en (access date: 01.12.2020).

21. Chaum, D., Grothoff, C., Moser, T. (January 2021). How to Issue a Central Bank Digital Currency. Swiss National Bank Working Paper. https://www.snb.ch/n/mmr/reference/working_paper_2021_03/source/working_paper_2021_03.n.pdf (access date: 25.02.2021).

22. Calle, G., Eidan, D. (April 2020). Central Bank Digital Currency: An Innovation in Payments. R3 White Paper. https://www.r3.com/reports/central-bank-digital-currency-an-innovation-in-payments/ (access date: 05.05.2020).

23. dGen. CBDC: Considerations for the Digital Euro. https://www.dgen.org/cbdc (access date: 05.05.2020).

24. Agur, I., Ari, A., Dell'Ariccia, G. (2019). How Could Central Bank Digital Currencies be Designed?. SUERF Policy Note, 129. https://www.suerf.org/policynotes/9763/how-could-central-bank-digital-currencies-be-designed (access date: 05.05.2020).

25. Lagarde, C. (14 November 2018). Winds of Change: The Case for New Digital Currency. Speech to Singapore Fintech Festival as Prepared for Delivery. https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2018/11/13/sp111418-winds-of-change-the-case-for-new-digital-currency (access date: 26.02.2020).

26. Agur, I., Ari, A., Dell'Ariccia, G. (2018). Designing Central Bank Digital Currencies. IMF Working Paper. https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Publications/WP/2019/wpiea2019252-print-pdf.ashx (access date: 27.04.2020).

27. Benaloh, J. (29 November 2018). What if Responsible Encryption Back-Doors Were Possible?. Lawfare Blog. https://www.lawfareblog.com/what-if-responsible-encryption-back-doors-were-possible (access date: 11.12.2020).

28. Courtois, N., Mercer, R. Stealth Address and Key Management Techniques in Blockchain Systems. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Information Systems Security and Privacy (ICISSP 2017), Porto, Portugal, 19–21 February 2017, pp. 559–566. http://www.scitepress.org/Papers/2017/62700 /62700.pdf (access date: 10.10.2018).

29. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2020). Blockchain and Distributed Ledger Technologies – Privacy and Personally Identifiable Information Protection Considerations (1st ed.; ISO/TR 23244:2020; ISO). Geneva, Switzerland.

30. Pedersen, T. Non-Interactive and Information-Theoretic Secure Verifiable Secret Sharing. In Proceedings of the Advances in Cryptology (CRYPTO '91), Santa Barbara, CA, USA, 11–15 August 1991 (pp. 129–140). https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F3-540-46766-1_9.pdf (access date: 10.10.2018).

31. van Wirdum, A. (2 June 2016). Confidential Transactions: How Hiding Transaction Amounts Increases Bitcoin Privacy. Bitcoin Magazine. https://bitcoinmagazine.com/articles/confidential-transactions-how-hiding-transaction-amounts-increases-bitcoinprivacy-1464892525/ (access date: 10.10. 2018).

32. Rivest, R., Shamir, A., Tauman, Y. (2018). How to Leak a Secret. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 2248. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany (pp. 552–565). https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F3-540-45682-1_32.pdf (access date: 10.10.2018).

33. Ben-Sasson, E., Bentov, I., Horesh, Y., Riabzev, M. (2018). Scalable, Transparent, and Post-Quantum Secure Computational Integrity, International Association for Cryptologic Research (IACR), Lyon, France. https://eprint.iacr.org/2018/046.pdf (access date: 03.03.2020).

34. Guan, Z., Wan, Z., Yang, Y., Zhou, Y., Huang, B. (2019). BlockMaze: An Efficient Privacy-Preserving Account-Model Blockchain Based on zk-SNARKs. Report 2019/1354; International Association for Cryptologic Research (IACR): Lyon, France. https://eprint.iacr.org/2019/1354 (access date: 30.03.2020).

35. Sapling. Zcash. https://z.cash/upgrade/sapling/ (access date: 15.04.2020).

36. Ghadafi, E. (2013). Sub-linear Blind Ring Signatures without Random Oracles. In M. Stam (ed.), Cryptography and Coding, 8308. IMACC 2013. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Springer. Berlin/Heidelberg. Germany. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-45239-0_18 (access date: 25.02.2021).

37. Zimmermann, P. (1991). Why I Wrote PGP. In PGP User's Guide. Massachusetts Institute of Technology: Cambridge, MA. USA. https://www.philzimmermann.com/EN/essays/WhyIWrotePGP.html (access date: 11.10.2018).

38. Wong, J., Kar, I. (18 July 2016). Everything You Need to Know about the Ethereum 'Hard Fork', Quartz. https://qz.com/730004/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-ethereum-hard-fork/ (access date: 16.07.2020).

39. Software in the Public Interest, Inc. Debian Security FAQ. https://www.debian.org/security/faq (access date: 16.07.2020).

40. U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission. SEC Proposes Improvements to Governance of Market Data Plans, Press Release (8 January 2020). https://www.sec.gov/news/press-release/2020-5 (access date: 16.07.2020).

41. United States Securities and Exchange Commission Division of Trading and Markets. Memorandum to SEC Market Structure Advisory Committee (30 April 2015). http://sec.gov/spotlight/emsac/memo-rule-611-regulation-nms.pdf (access date: 03.11.2020).

42. Bank for International Settlements. Payment, Clearing and Settlement Systems in the CPSS Countries, 2 (November 2012). Committee on Payment and Settlement Systems “Red Book”. https://www.bis.org/cpmi/publ/d105.pdf (access date: 31.05.2020).

43. Bank for International Settlements. Payment, Clearing and Settlement Systems in the United Kingdom, 2 (November 2012), Committee on Payment and Settlement Systems “Red Book” (pp. 445–446). https://www.bis.org/cpmi/publ/d105_uk.pdf (access date: 16.04.2020).

44. J. Abelson, H., Anderson, R., Bellovin, S., Benaloh, J., Blaze, M., Diffie, W., Gilmore, J., Green, M., Landau, S., Neumann, P. et al. (2015). Keys under doormats: Mandating insecurity by requiring government access to all data and communications. Cybersecur, 1, 69–79. https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D82N5D59/download (access date: 11.03.2019).

45. Bordo, M. D., Levin, A. T. (2017). Central Bank Digital Currency and the Future of Monetary Policy. National Bureau of Economic Research. Cambridge. MA. USA.

46. Castro, M., Liskov, B. (1999). Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance. In Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation, New Orleans, LA, USA, 22–25 February 1999. http://pmg.csail.mit.edu/papers/osdi99.pdf (access date: 12.10.2018).

47. Ripple. XRP. https://ripple.com/xrp/ (access date: 03.03.2020).

48. Visa. Fact Sheet. https://usa.visa.com/dam/VCOM/download/corporate/media/visanet-technology/aboutvisafactsheet.pdf (access date: 03.03.2020).

49. Visa. Visa Acceptance for Retailers. https://web.archive.org/web/20200103093557/https://usa.visa.com/run-your-business/ small-business-tools/retail.html (access date: 03.03.2020).

50. Bindseil, U. (January 2020). Tiered CBDC and the Financial System, European Central Bank Working Paper Series 2351. https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/scpwps/ecb.wp2351~c8c18bbd60.en.pdf (access date: 21.05.2020).

51. Li, Y., Yang, G., Susilo, W., Yu, Y., Au, M. H., Liu, D. (2021). Traceable Monero: Anonymous Cryptocurrency with Enhanced Accountability, IEEE Trans. Dependable Secur. Comput, 18, 679–691.

52. Abelson, H., Anderson, R., Bellovin, S., Benaloh, J., Blaze, M., Diffie, W., Gilmore, J., Neumann, P., Rivest, R., Schiller, J. et al. (27 May 1997). The Risks of Key Recovery, Key Escrow, and Trusted Third-Party Encryption. https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8R2176H/download (access date: 11.03.2019).

53. 115th Congress of the United States. H.R. 5823, “Secure Data Act of 2018". (15 May 2018). Introduced by Representative Zoe Lofgren [D-CA-19]. https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/5823 (access date: 11.03.2019).

54. Thomson, I. (15 January 2016). French say 'Non, merci' to Encryption Backdoors. The Register. https://www.theregister.co.uk/2016/01/15/france_backdoor_law/ (access date: 11.03.2019).

55. Financial Action Task Force (FATF) (2018). The FATF Recommendations. Updated February. http://www.fatf-gafi.org/media/fatf/documents/recommendations/pdfs/FATF%20Recommendations%202012.pdf (access date: 16.09.2018).

56. Goodell, G., Aste, T. (2019). A Decentralised Digital Identity Architecture. Front. Blockchain, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbloc.2019.00017

57. Pilkington, M. (2016). Blockchain Technology: Principles and Applications. Working Paper. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2662660 (access date: 11.05.2020).

58. Siliski, M., Pott, A. (10 April 2018). Blockchain Alternatives: The Right Tool for the Job. Medium. https://medium.com/swlh/blockchain-alternatives-b21184ccc345 (access date: 24.10.2019).

59. Tasca, P., Morini, M. (24–27 February 2017). Managing Risk Under the Blockchain Paradigm, Harvard Business Review China.

60. Fernandez-Villaverde, J., Sanches, D., Schilling, L., Uhlig, H. (June 2020). Central Bank Digital Currency: Central Banking for All?. Working Paper WP 20–19. Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia. Philadelphia, PA, USA. https://doi.org/10.21799/frbp.wp.2020.19

61. Technical Solution for the e-Krona Pilot. (20 February 2020). Sveriges Riksbank. https://www.riksbank.se/en-gb/payments--cash/e-krona/technical-solution-for-the-e-krona-pilot/ (access date: 25.05.2020).

62. Adrian, T., Mancini-Griffoli, T. (July 2019). The Rise of Digital Money. International Monetary Fund FinTech Note 19/01. https://www.imf.org/~/media/Files/Publications/FTN063/2019/English/FTNEA2019001.ashx (access date: 21.05.2020).

63. Bouchaud, M., Lyons, T., Olive, M. S., Timsit, K. Central Banks and the Future of Digital Money. https://pages.consensys.net/central-banks-and-the-future-of-digital-money (access date: 26.07.2020).

64. Auer, R., Bohme, R. (2020). The technology of retail central bank digital currency. BIS Q. Rev., 85–100. https://www.bis.org/publ/qtrpdf/r_qt2003j.pdf (access date: 19.05.2020).

65. Goodell, G., Al-Nakib, H. D., Tasca, P. (2021). A Digital Currency Architecture for Privacy and Owner-Custodianship. Future Internet, 13, 130. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi13050130