Экстренные новости о социальных проблемах: использование средств массовой информации и представления студентов о стрельбе в школах

Цель: изучение взаимосвязи между использованием средств массовой информации обучающимися университетов и их отношением к стрельбе в школах в Соединенных Штатах Америки.

Методы: диалектический подход к познанию социальных явлений, позволяющий проанализировать их в историческом развитии и функционировании в контексте совокупности объективных и субъективных факторов, который определил выбор следующих методов исследования: формально-логический и социологический.

Результаты: общепризнано, что стрельба в школах – это социальная проблема, требующая решения. Хотя она и носит эпизодический характер, но вызывает страх и тревогу, особенно в результате повышенного внимания, уделяемого прессой. В настоящей работе исследуется связь между использованием средств массовой информации студентами университетов и их убежденностью в том, что стрельба в школах является проблемой в Соединенных Штатах. Опрос проводился осенью 2012 г. среди 442 студентов университета. Проводились измерения конкретных режимов использования средств массовой информации, включая телевидение, газеты и социальные сети. Затем результаты анализировались с целью оценки указанной связи. Было обнаружено, что социальные сети, особенно «Твиттер»¹ , существенно влияют на убеждения студентов относительно стрельбы в школах. Результаты исследования также свидетельствуют о значительных изменениях в производстве средств массовой информации, которые способствуют большей вовлеченности аудитории в обсуждение. В статье также обсуждается практическая значимость результатов для журналистики, ограничения данной работы и направления будущих исследований.

Научная новизна: в настоящей работе мы постарались изучить влияние потребления СМИ на убеждения респондентов в том, что стрельба в школах является проблемой в Соединенных Штатах Америки. Была выдвинута гипотеза, что существует положительная связь между объемом сообщений СМИ, потребляемым студентами, и их убежденностью в том, что стрельба в школах является проблемой. Было обнаружено, что чем больше студенты используют социальные медиа, особенно «Твиттер», тем сильнее их убежденность в том, что стрельба в школах является социальной проблемой. Однако не все медиа показали такую связь в соответствии с теорией культивации.

Практическая значимость: основные положения и выводы статьи могут быть использованы в научной, педагогической и правоприменительной деятельности при рассмотрении вопросов, связанных с предупреждением и пресечением преступлений.

* Примечание: Международное молодежное движение «Колумбайн» («Скулшутинг») признано террористической организацией.

¹ Соцсеть, заблокированная в РФ за распространение незаконной информации. – Прим. ред.

1. Kellner, D. (2003). Media spectacle. London: Routledge.

2. Kellner, D. (2008). Guys and guns amok: Domestic terrorism and school shootings from the Oklahoma City bombing to the Virginia Tech massacre. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers.

3. Kellner, D. (2008). Media spectacle and the “Massacre at Virginia Tech.” In B. Agger, T. W. Luke (Eds.), There is a gunman on campus (pp. 29–54). Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

4. Stafford, M. C., Warr, M. (1985). Public perceptions of social problems: Some propositions and a test. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 21 (3), 307–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/002188638502100306

5. Schildkraut, J., Muschert, G. W. (2014). Media salience and the framing of mass murder in schools: A comparison of the Columbine and Sandy Hook massacres. Homicide Studies, 18 (1), 23–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767913511458

6. Schildkraut, J., Hernandez, T. C. (2014). Laws that bit the bullet: A review of legislative responses to school shootings. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 39, 358–374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-013-9214-6

7. Arendt, F. (2010). Cultivation effects of a newspaper on reality estimates and explicit and implicit attitudes. Journal of Media Psychology, 22 (4), 147–159. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000020

8. Gerbner, G., Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of Communication, 26 (2), 173–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1976.tb01397.x

9. Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., Signorielli, N. (1986). Living with television: The dynamics of the cultivation process. In J. Bryant, D. Zillman (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 17–40). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

10. Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Signorelli, N., Morgan, M. (1980). Television violence, victimization, and power. The American Behavioral Scientist, 23 (5), 705–716. https://doi.org/10.1177/000276428002300506

11. Morgan, M., Shanahan, J. (2010). The state of cultivation. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54 (2), 337–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151003735018

12. Potter, W. J. (2011). Conceptualizing mass media effect. Journal of Communication, 61 (5), 896–915. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01586.x

13. Shrum, L. J. (2001). Processing strategy moderates the cultivation effect. Human Communication Research, 27 (1), 94–120. https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/27.1.94

14. Romer, D., Jamieson, K., Aday, S. (2003). Television news and the cultivation of fear of crime. Journal of Communication, 53 (1), 88–104. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/53.1.88

15. Hughes, M. (1980). The fruits of cultivation analysis: A reexamination of some effects of television watching. Public Opinion Quarterly, 44 (3), 287–302. https://doi.org/10.1086/268597

16. Sacco, V. F. (1982). The effects of mass media on perceptions of crime: A reanalysis of the issues. The Pacific Sociological Review, 25 (4), 475–493. https://doi.org/10.2307/1388925

17. Sacco, V. F. (1995). Media constructions of crime. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 539 (1), 141–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716295539001011

18. Surette, R. (1992). Media, crime, & criminal justice: Images and reality. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.

19. Couldry, N. (2008). Mediatization or mediation? Alternative understandings of the emergent space of digital storytelling. New Media & Society, 10 (3), 373–391. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444808089414

20. Callanan, V. (2012). Media consumption, perceptions of crime risk and fear of crime: Examining race/ethnic differences. Sociological Perspectives, 55 (1), 93–115. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2012.55.1.93

21. Heath, L. (1984). Impact of newspaper crime reports on fear of crime: Multimethodological investigation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47 (2), 263–274. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.47.2.263

22. Liska, A., Lawrence, J., Sanchirico, A. (1982). Fear of crime as a social fact. Social Forces, 60 (3), 760–770. https://doi.org/10.2307/2578391

23. Dowler, K. (2003). Media consumption and public attitudes toward crime and justice: The relationship between fear of crime, punitive attitudes, and perceived police effectiveness. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 10 (2), 109–126.

24. Dowler, K., Fleming, T., Muzzatti, S. (2006). Constructing crime: Media, crime, and popular culture. Canadian Journal of Criminology & Criminal Justice, 48 (6), 837–850. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.48.6.837

25. Chermak, S. M. (1995). Victims in the news: Crime and the American news media. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

26. Gilliam, F. D., Iyengar, S. (2000). Prime suspects: The influence of local television news on the viewing public. American Journal of Political Science, 44 (3), 560–573. https://doi.org/10.2307/2669264

27. Graber, D. A. (1980). Crime news and the public. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

28. Lawrence, R., Mueller, D. (2003). School shootings and the man-bites-dog criterion of newsworthiness. Youth Violence & Juvenile Justice, 1 (4), 330–345. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204003255842

29. Maguire, B., Sandage, D., Weatherby, G. A. (1999). Crime stories as television news: A content analysis of national big city and small town newscasts. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 7 (1), 1–14.

30. Chermak, S. M. (1994). Body count news: How crime is presented in the news media. Justice Quarterly, 11 (4), 561–582. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829400092431

31. Duwe, G. (2000). Body-count journalism. Homicide Studies, 4 (4), 364–399.

32. Garofalo, J. (1981). Crime and the mass media: A selective review of the research. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 18 (2), 319–350.

33. Jewkes, Y. E. (2004). Media & crime: Key approaches to criminology. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications.

34. Mayr, A., Machin, D. (2012). The language of crime and deviance: An introduction to critical linguistic analysis in media and popular culture. London: Continuum International Publishing Group.

35. Robinson, M. B. (2011). Media coverage of crime and criminal justice. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.

36. Chermak, S. M. (1998). Predicting story crime salience: The effects of crime, victim, and defendant characteristics. Journal of Criminal Justice, 26 (1), 61–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(97)00055-X

37. Pritchard, D., Hughes, K. (1997). Patterns of deviance in crime news. Journal of Communication, 47 (3), 49–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1997.tb02716.x

38. Maguire, B., Weatherby, G. A., Mathers, R. A. (2002). Network news coverage of school shootings. The Social Science Journal, 39 (3), 465–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0362-3319(02)00201-X

39. Stylianou, S. (2003). Measuring crime seriousness perceptions: What have we learned and what else do we want to know. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31 (1), 37–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(02)00198-8

40. Muschert, G. W. (2002). Media and massacre: The social construction of the Columbine story. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO.

41. Newman, K. (2006). School shootings are a serious problem. In S. Hunnicutt (Ed.), School shootings (pp. 10–17). Farmington Hills, MI: Greenhaven Press.

42. Chyi, H. I., McCombs, M. (2004). Media salience and the process of framing: Coverage of the Columbine school shootings. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 81 (1), 22–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900408100103

43. Muschert, G. W., Carr, D. (2006). Media salience and frame changing across events: Coverage of nine school shootings, 1997–2001. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 83 (4), 747–766. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900608300402

44. Schildkraut, J. (2012). Media and massacre: A comparative analysis of the reporting of the 2007 Virginia Tech shootings. Fast Capitalism, 9 (1). http://www.uta.edu/huma/agger/fastcapitalism/91/schildkraut91.html

45. Barak, G. (1994). Media, society, and criminology. In G. Barak (Ed.), Media, process, and the social construction of crime: Studies in newsmaking criminology (pp. 3–45). New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.

46. Gans, H. J. (1979). Deciding what’s news: A study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek, and Time. New York, NY: Pantheon Books.

47. Tuchman, G. (1978). Making news: A study in the construction of reality. New York: Free Press.

48. Downs, A. (1972). Up and down with ecology: The “issue-attention cycle”. Public Interest, 28, 38–50.

49. McCombs, M. E. (1997). Building consensus: The news media’s agenda-setting roles. Political Communication, 14 (4), 433–443. https://doi.org/10.1080/105846097199236

50. McCombs, M. E., Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 36 (2), 176–187. https://doi.org/10.1086/267990

51. Weaver, D. H. (2007). Thoughts on agenda setting, framing, and priming. Journal of Communication, 57 (1), 142–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00333.x

52. Washington Post-ABC News poll. (n.d.). Washington Post Politics. Retrieved September 4, 2013. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/polls/postabcpoll_20121216.html

53. Cohen, В. C. (1963). The press and foreign policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

54. Gerbner, G. (1993). Women and minorities on television: A study in casting and fate. Retrieved from the University of Pennsylvania, Annenberg School for Communication website: http://www.asc.upenn.edu/gerbner/Asset.aspx?assetID=338

55. Parker, K. (2011, October 5). University aims for emerging research. The University Star. http://star.txstate.edu

56. Brantingham, P. J., Brantingham, P. L. (1994). Surveying campus crime: What can be done to reduce crime and fear? Security Journal, 5, 160–171.

57. Fisher, В. S., Sloan III, J. J. (2003). Unraveling the fear of victimization among college women: Is the ‘shadow of sexual assault hypothesis’ supported? Justice Quarterly, 20 (3), 633–659.

58. Fisher, В. S., Sloan, J. J., Wilkins, D. L. (1995). Fear of crime and perceived risk of victimization on an urban university campus: A test of multiple models. In B. S. Fisher, J. J. Sloan (Eds.), Campus crime: Legal, social, and policy perspectives (pp. 179–209). Springfield, IL: Charles Thomas Publisher.

59. Kaminski, R. J., Koons-Witt, B. A., Thompson, N. S., Weiss, D. (2010). The impacts of Virginia Tech and Northern Illinois University shootings on the fear of crime on campus. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38 (1), 88–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.11.011

60. Ortega, S. T., Myles, J. L. (1987). Race and gender effects on fear of crime: An interactive model with age. Criminology, 25 (1), 133–152. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1987.tb00792.x

61. Roundtree, P. W., Land, K. C. (1996). Perceived risk versus fear of crime: Empirical evidence of conceptually distinct reactions in survey data. Social Forces, 74 (4), 1353–1376. https://doi.org/10.2307/2580354

62. Stafford, M. C., Galle, O. R. (1984). Victimization rates, exposure to risk, and fear of crime. Criminology, 22 (2), 173–185. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1984.tb00295.x

63. Warr, M. (1984). Fear of victimization: Why are women and the elderly more afraid? Social Science Quarterly, 65 (3), 681–702.

64. Warr, M. (2000). Fear of crime in the United States: Avenues for research and policy. In D. Duffee (Ed.), Criminal justice 2000: Measurement and analysis of crime, Vol. 4 (pp. 451–489). Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. http://www.crime-reg.com/police/warrfearofcrime.pdf

65. Warr, M., Stafford, M. (1983). Fear of victimization: A look at the proximate causes. Social Forces, 61 (4), 1033–1043. https://doi.org/10.2307/2578277

66. Altheide, D. L. (2009). The Columbine shooting and the discourse of fear. American Behavioral Scientist, 52 (10), 1354–1370. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209332552

67. Muschert, G. W. (2007). Research in school shootings. Sociology Compass, 1 (1), 60–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00008.x

68. Tam, D. (2013, January 30). Facebook by the numbers: 1.06 billion monthly active users. CNET News. http://news.cnet.com/8301-10233-57566550-93/facebook-by-the-numbers-1.06-billion-monthly-active-users/

69. Kwak, H., Lee, C., Park, H., Moon, S. (2010). What is Twitter, a social network or news media? Paper presented at the International World Wide Web Conference, Raleigh, NC. http://product.ubion.co.kr/upload20120220142222731/ccres00056/db/_2250_1/embedded/2010-www-twitter.pdf

70. Hughes, A. L., Palen, L. (2009). Twitter adoption and use in mass convergence and emergency events. Paper presented at the Sixth International ISCRAM Conference, Gothenburg, Sweden. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/215500880_Twitter_adoption_and_use_in_mass_convergence_and_emergency_events/file/d912f5112a31de0455.pdf

71. Java, A., Finin, T., Song, X., Tseng, B. (2007). Why we Twitter: Understanding microblogging usage and communities. Paper presented at the Joint 9 th WEBKDD and 1 st SNA-KDD Workshop, San Jose, CA. http://aisl.umbc.edu/resources/369.pdf

72. Lerman, K., Ghosh, R. (2010). Information contagion: An empirical study of the spread of news on Digg and Twitter social networks. Paper presented at the Fourth International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media, Washington, D.C. http://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/ICWSM/ICWSM10/paper/viewFile/1509/1839

73. Naveed, N., Gottron, T., Kunegis, J., Alhadi, A. C. (2011). Bad news travel fast: A content-based analysis of interestingness on Twitter. WebSci 2011. http://www.websci2011.org/fileadmin/websci/Papers/2050_paper.pdf

74. Braun, J., Gillespie, T. (2011). Hosting the public discourse, hosting the public: When online news and social media converge. Journalism Practice, 5 (4), 383–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2011.557560

75. Hermida, A. (2010). Twittering the news: The emergence of ambient journalism. Journalism Practice, 4 (3), 297–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512781003640703

76. Pew Research Center for the People & the Press. (2010). Ideological news sources: Who watches and why; Americans spending more time following the news. http://www.people-press.org/files/legacy-pdf/652.pdf

77. Picard, R. G. (2009). Blogs, tweets, social media, and the news business. Nieman Reports, 63 (3), 10–12.

78. Skoler, M. (2009). Why the news media became irrelevant - and how social media can help. Nieman Reports, 63 (3), 38–40. https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/27.1.94

79. Stassen, W. (2010). Your news in 140 characters: exploring the role of social media in journalism. Global Media Journal: African Edition, 4 (1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.5789/4-1-15

80. Lariscy, R. W., Avery, E. J., Sweetser, K. D., Howes, P. (2009). An examination of the role of online social media in journalists’ source mix. Public Relations Review, 35 (3), 314–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2009.05.008

81. Deuze, M., Bruns, A., Neuberger, C. (2007). Preparing for an age of participatory news. Journalism practice, 1 (3), 322–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512780701504864

82. Wigley, S., Fontenot, M. (2009). Where media turn during crises: A look at information subsidies and the Virginia Tech shootings. News, 3 (2), 94–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312430902834748

83. Gandy, O. H. (1982). Beyond agenda setting: Information subsidies and public policy. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

84. Farhi, P. (2009). The Twitter explosion. American Journalism Review, 31 (3), 26. http://www.air.org/Article.asp?id=4756

85. Elsass, H. J., Schildkraut, J., Stafford, M. C. (2014). Breaking News of Social Problems: Examining Media Consumption and Student Beliefs about School Shootings, Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society, 15 (2), 31–42.